The main purpose of the Introduction is to provide your reader with background information on your chosen topic and to present your hypothesis or purpose. Essentially, the Introduction should answer 2 questions:

1. What did you aim to answer or discover?
2. Why did you do the study?

When beginning to write the Introduction, it can be helpful to first write your hypothesis or purpose statement and then outline your reasoning for the statements (eg, the facts or reasoning that led you to your statements). However, your Introduction should be written as a funnel (ie, with the broadest, most accepted information presented first and the most narrow information and unanswered questions presented last).

A good general outline for the Introduction follows:

1. Background information
2. Gap in knowledge
3. Hypothesis or purpose statement
4. Strategy for testing the hypothesis (eg, an “elevator pitch” of your Methods)

It is important to keep the background information appropriate for your audience. If you are writing an article intended for publication in a highly specialized journal, then the included terminology would be more specific than if you were writing an article intended for a general audience. You should include enough information for your reader to understand how you arrived at your hypothesis or purpose statement and why your study is necessary.

Checklist

• Background information is at a level that is appropriate for your audience.
• Information that led to the development of the hypothesis is included.
• Introduction is written in a funnel structure, with the broadest information presented first and the narrowest information (eg, the hypothesis) presented at the end.
• The gap in knowledge is clearly presented.
• The importance of filling the gap in knowledge is clearly presented.
• The hypothesis or purpose statement is included.
• (Optional) A short description of the Methods is included (eg, “we retrospectively evaluated…”).
• (Optional) The conclusions are briefly stated.

The Methods section should tell your reader what you did in enough detail to allow another researcher in your field to replicate the experiments. It is also important to include the rationale behind each step. An easy way to accomplish this is to add a “to” phrase when stating the rationale (eg, “To investigate ______, we ______.”).

Different types of studies benefit from different types of organization of the Methods, but in all cases, subheadings can be extremely helpful for readers to quickly find information. Generally, a chronological order is a good order for the Methods (eg, discuss patient selection before you discuss any interventions). Lastly, the Methods should be written in past tense because the actions have all occurred in the past.

Checklist

• Methods section is written in past tense.

Basic Science Studies

Materials

• The materials used in the study are described.
• Generic names, if applicable, and concentration and dose of drugs are provided.
• Concentration and grade, if applicable, of reagents are provided.
• Supplier names and their headquarters locations, if required, for all materials are included.

Cell Lines and Cultures

• Cell lines and cultures are named.
• Supplier names and their headquarters locations, if required, for all cell lines and cultures are included.
• Culture preparations are described.

Human Participants

• Statements on institutional review board approval and informed patient consent (or if such consent is waived, then a reasoning for such exclusion) are included.
• Study population is identified.
• Inclusion and exclusion criteria are listed.
• Sample collection methods, including the number of samples collected are described.

Animals

• Standards of animal care are described, or a statement declaring that certain guidelines were followed is included.
• Supplier names and their headquarters locations, if required, for all animals are included.
• The total number of animals, along with their sex and age, are included.
• All methods related to the animals, including euthanasia methods, are described.

Experiments

• Each experiment’s methodology is described.
• Each experiment’s rationale is provided.

Statistical Tests

• Statistical tests used are identified.
• What each test was used to evaluate is described.
• The level of significance, eg, P < 0.05, is defined.

Retrospective Clinical Studies

• The source of the patients’ data (eg, chart review, database, or data from a previously reported prospective clinical study) is identified.
• Inclusion and exclusion criteria, including dates (eg, January 1, 2020, to December 31, 2020), are listed.
• The types of data reviewed or extracted from patient records are described.
• Subgroups, if applicable, are defined.
• The total number of patients and the number in each subgroup, if applicable, are included.
• Statements on institutional review board approval and informed patient consent (or if such consent is waived, then a reasoning for such exclusion) are provided.
• Pretreatment evaluations, treatments, interventions, and any follow-up evaluations are described.
• Outcome measures of interest and minimum differences that were considered clinically important are defined.
• Methods for statistical analyses, including the names of the tests, what they were used to evaluate, and the level of significance are defined.

Prospective Clinical Studies

• The settings and locations where the data were collected, including where patients were recruited, are described.
• Inclusion and exclusion criteria, including dates (eg, January 1, 2020, to December 31, 2020), are listed.
• Interventions for each group and how and when they were administered are precisely detailed.
• The primary and secondary outcomes, including any methods used to enhance the quality of the measurements, if applicable, are defined.
• Methods to determine sample size, as well as interim analyses and stopping rules, if applicable, are described.
• The methods used to randomize patients, including details of any restrictions, are described.
• The methods used to implement the patient randomization process are described.
• The people responsible for the patient randomization sequence, for patient enrollment, and for patient assignment to groups are identified.
• Any blinding and how the success of such blinding was evaluated, if applicable are identified.
• Methods for statistical analyses, including the names of the tests, what they were used to evaluate, and the level of significance, are described.

In the Results, the study’s main findings are presented. Often, authors will attempt to interpret these findings in this section; however, such interpretations should not be included in this section. Additionally, detailed methods-related information should not be included in the Results.

One common organization for the Results is mirroring the organization of the Methods section. This organizational strategy has 2 primary benefits: 1) it can help orient the reader and 2) it helps ensure that you do not accidentally miss some data. As in the Methods, subheadings can be particularly useful in the Results. In fact, you can use the same subheadings in the Methods and Results. Each individual subsection can be organized as follows:

1. A sentence or phrase reminding the reader of the experiment or analysis that was performed
2. The findings of the experiment or analysis (referencing figures and tables)
3. A sentence summarizing the “takeaway” from this subsection

Such organization can help you avoid a common pitfall: including too much interpretation in the Results.

When including data in the Results, you should consider if the data would be better presented as a table or figure. A good rule of thumb is that if the information can be presented in 1 or 2 sentences, then including the data in the main text is a good idea. However, if describing the data would require more than 2 sentences, then presenting the information in a table or figure is a better option. Be sure to minimize repetition in the main text and the figure or tables. When referencing a table, you should mention only the most important findings, not all the data in the table.

Checklist

• Results for each methodology listed in the Methods are included.
• (Optional) Results are presented in the order in which the Methods are presented.
• Methods are not repeated in the Results.
• Results section is written in past tense.
• Data interpretation or speculation of results is not included or is limited.
• Data in the text and in the figures and tables match.
• Each figure and table are mentioned in the Results.
• Data in the figures and tables are not extensively repeated in the Results.
• If findings are included in both a table or figure and in the main text, then only the most important findings are summarized in the text.

In the Discussion, you will discuss the importance of your findings, ie, the interpretation of your results, how the results align (or contradict) current knowledge, how they will impact current thought or practice, and what further research you suggest.

A common problem in the Discussion is background information and results are repeated in the Discussion. Instead, you should focus on interpreting the results and discussing their importance.

A good general structure for a Discussion follows:

1. Restate your hypothesis or purpose statement
2. State your main conclusions that answer the hypothesis or address the purpose statement
3. Interpret your findings
4. Place your results with existing literature, focusing both on studies that agree and disagree, with explanations for the differences or contradictions
5. State the strengths of your study
6. Acknowledge and discuss the limitations of your study, and possibly refute the limitations, if applicable
7. State the generalizability of your findings
8. Describe why filling the gap in knowledge is important
9. Explain the implications of your findings
10. Describe what future studies should focus on

Checklist

• The hypothesis or purpose statement is repeated.
• Some background information, but not an excessive amount, is included.
• Discussion starts with stating the conclusions based on the findings.
• Any major findings that support the main conclusions are included.
• How the findings fit with current literature (both studies that agree and disagree) are included.
• Novelty and exceptional strengths, if applicable, are described.
• Limitations of the study are addressed and possibly refuted.
• The extent to which the findings can be generalized to other patient populations is described.
• The importance of filling the gap in knowledge is described.
• The implications of the findings are explained.
• Avenues for future study are included.

The Abstract can often be one of the hardest parts of a manuscript to write, but it can be helpful to think of the Abstract as a mini paper. You should cover the most important parts of each section of the manuscript. The Abstract serves 2 functions: to act as a “sales tool” and to allow readers to determine if the whole article is relevant to their research. Thus, the Abstract should be able to be read and understood without having to reference the main text.

When writing the abstract, include a few sentences on the rationale and gap in knowledge for the study, a sentence on your hypothesis, a few sentences highlighting the major methods, three or four sentences on the major results that support or refute the hypothesis, and a few sentences on the implications and interpretation of your findings.

Checklist

• No new information is introduced in the Abstract (ie, all information included in the Abstract is included in the main text).
• Background information, including the gap in knowledge that the study aimed to fill, are included (1 to 2 sentences).
• Hypothesis or purpose statement is included and agrees with those presented in the main text (1 sentence).
• Experimental approach is described, including the patients or materials, the important experiments or interventions, and the primary end points (1 to 3 sentences).
• The most important results are described, with the results required to support the conclusion described in sufficient detail (3 to 4 sentences).
• Conclusions of the study are included and agree with those presented in the main text (1 to 2 sentences).

The title is often the very first thing that someone will read related to your paper. It should essentially summarize the essence of the article. The title should include how this study stands out from others in the field, ie, how it fills a gap in the knowledge.

To be as informative as possible, you should include the following information in your title, if possible:

1. The main factors studied
2. The population (or animal, plant, or cell line) studied
3. The type of study (especially for clinical studies)
4. The major findings

It is also important to be as specific as possible. Thus, avoiding uninformative phrases, such as “a study of” or “a report of,” is a good idea.

Checklist

• Main factors studied are included.
• Population studied is named, if applicable.
• Type of study, eg randomized controlled trial, is identified, if applicable.
• Major findings are included.
• The title is specific.

Often times, preparing figures and tables is the first step in the writing process. This preparation and organization of the data can help organize your thoughts and determine the outcome of the study.

It is important to remember that figures and tables should supplement—not repeat—the main text, and each figure and table should be mentioned in the main text. Sometimes, it can be difficult to decide when to present data in a figure, table, or text. In general, if data can be presented simply in a few sentences or less, then describing it textually is the best. If you are highlighting a trend, displaying complex relationships, illustrating complex concepts or topics, or providing visual data, figures are better. Lastly, if you need to present a large amount of quantitative information or detailed comparisons, then a table is often best.

Journals may have different rules related to figures and tables, so be sure to read the instructions for authors for any of this pertinent information. However, always be sure to define the abbreviations below the table or figure in a footnote and to provide a figure key for figures. Lastly, each figure needs a figure legend describing the figure as succinctly as possible.

Checklist

Tables

• Table title matches the content of the table is detailed enough to understand the table.
• Abbreviations are explained in footnotes.
• Results given match the data in the main text.
• Column labels describe data in the columns.
• Units of measure are indicated, when applicable.

Figures

• Text and symbols match in the figures, their legends, and the main text.
• Information in figure agrees with data presented in the main text.
• For line graphs, x-axis represents the independent variable, and the y-axis represents the dependent variable.
• Images are clear and large enough to be legible.
• Units of measure are indicated, when applicable.

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